Integrated Circuits - IC | SSI, LSI, VLSI, ULSI

The separately manufactured components like resistor, capacitor, diode, and transistor are joined by wires or by printed circuit board (PCB) to form circuits. These circuits are called discrete circuits and they have the following disadvantages:

  1. In a large electronic circuit, there may be a very large number of components and as a result, the discrete assembly will occupy a very large space.
  2. They are formed by soldering which causes a problem of reliability.

To overcome these problems of space conservation and reliability, integrated circuits were developed.           
Integrated Circuit (IC).

An IC comprises a number of circuit components like resistors, transistors, etc. They are interconnected in a single small package to perform the desired electronic function. These components are formed and connected within a small chip of semiconductor material. In IC the following features are observed.

  1. In IC, the various components are integral parts of a small semiconductor chip and the individual components cannot be removed for repair and replacement as in discrete circuits.
  2. It combines both active elements like diodes and transistors with passive components like resistors and capacitors in a monolithic structure, so the complete unit in a monolithic circuit. Their size is very small. To see connections between their various components, a microscope is needed.
  3. All the components are formed within the chip and no components is seen projected above the surface of the chip.

Scale Of Integration

The number of components fitted into a standard-size IC represents its integration scale, in other words, it’s a density of components. It is classified as follows:

  1. SSI – Small-Scale Integration

    Small Scale Integration (SSI) is a term used in the field of electronics and digital circuit design to describe a level of integrated circuit (IC) technology. SSI refers to the integration of a relatively small number of electronic components or logic gates onto a single semiconductor chip. Here are some key points about SSI:

    1. Component Integration

      SSI involves the integration of a limited number of electronic components onto a single chip. These components can include basic logic gates, flip-flops, multiplexers, and simple arithmetic and memory units. It has less than 100 components (about 10 Gates).

    2. Low Complexity

      SSI devices are relatively simple in terms of functionality and complexity. They are typically used for basic digital tasks and do not include complex functions found in larger-scale integrated circuits.

    3. Applications

      SSI devices have been used in a variety of applications, including early digital calculators, simple control systems, and basic digital signal processing tasks. They have also been employed in smaller-scale custom digital projects.

    4. Count of Gates

      The number of gates or components integrated in SSI devices can vary, but it generally falls in the range of a few to a few dozen logic gates. These gates are interconnected to perform specific digital functions.

    5. Package Size

      SSI devices are relatively small in terms of physical size and come in various packages, including dual-inline packages (DIPs) and surface-mount devices (SMDs).

    6. Advantages

      SSI devices are cost-effective for basic digital functions, consume relatively low power, and are suitable for simpler electronic designs. They are also relatively easy to prototype and experiment with.

    7. Limitations

      The simplicity of SSI limits the complexity of the tasks they can perform. 

    In summary, Small Scale Integration (SSI) refers to the integration of a limited number of electronic components or logic gates onto a single semiconductor chip. SSI devices are relatively simple in functionality and are used for basic digital tasks. While they have been important in the history of digital electronics, more advanced integration levels have largely superseded them in modern electronic design due to their limited complexity and capabilities.

  2. MSI – Medium Scale Integration

    Medium Scale Integration (MSI) is a term used in the field of integrated circuit (IC) technology to describe a level of integration that falls between Small Scale Integration (SSI) and Large Scale Integration (LSI). MSI involves integrating a moderate number of electronic components or logic gates onto a single semiconductor chip. Here are some key points about MSI:

    1. Component Integration

      MSI devices incorporate a moderate number of electronic components onto a single chip. These components can include more advanced logic gates, multiplexers, decoders, registers, and other digital building blocks. It contains less than 500 components or has more than 10 but less than 100 gates.

    2. Moderate Complexity

      MSI devices are more complex than SSI devices but less complex than LSI devices. They are capable of performing a wider range of digital functions and can handle more intricate tasks.

    3. Applications

      MSI ICs have been used in a variety of applications, including early microcomputers, data multiplexing and demultiplexing, and digital control systems. They are versatile and have found use in both consumer and industrial electronics.

    4. Count of Gates

      The number of gates or components integrated in MSI devices typically ranges from a few dozen to a few hundred logic gates. These gates are interconnected to perform specific digital functions.

    5. Package Size

      MSI devices come in various package sizes and forms, depending on their intended use and complexity. They can be found in dual-inline packages (DIPs), surface-mount devices (SMDs), and other package types.

    6. Advantages

      MSI devices strike a balance between complexity and ease of use. They offer greater functionality compared to SSI, making them suitable for a wide range of digital tasks, while still being relatively cost-effective and easy to design with.

    7. Limitations

      While MSI devices are more capable than SSI, they are not as versatile and powerful as LSI and Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) devices. As technology continues to advance, more complex digital functions are often implemented using LSI and VLSI technologies.

    In summary, Medium Scale Integration (MSI) refers to the integration of a moderate number of electronic components or logic gates onto a single semiconductor chip. MSI devices strike a balance between complexity and ease of use, making them suitable for a variety of digital applications. They have been a crucial part of the history of digital electronics, serving as a bridge between simpler SSI and more advanced LSI and VLSI technologies.

  3. LSI – Large-Scale Integration

    Large Scale Integration (LSI) is a term used in the field of integrated circuit (IC) technology to describe a high level of integration, where a substantial number of electronic components or logic gates are integrated onto a single semiconductor chip. LSI represents a significant advancement in miniaturization and complexity compared to Medium Scale Integration (MSI) and Small Scale Integration (SSI). Here are some key points about LSI:

    1. Component Integration

      LSI devices incorporate a large number of electronic components onto a single chip. These components can include complex logic gates, memory cells, microprocessors, and other sophisticated digital building blocks. Here number of components is between 500 and 300000 or has more than 100 gates.

    2. High Complexity

      LSI devices are highly complex and capable of performing advanced and intricate digital functions. They can execute complex operations, process data, and manage various tasks within a single chip.

    3. Applications

      LSI ICs have revolutionized the electronics industry and have been used in a wide range of applications, including microcomputers, digital signal processors, memory devices, and countless consumer electronics products.

    4. Count of Gates

      The number of gates or components integrated in LSI devices typically ranges from thousands to hundreds of thousands or even millions of logic gates. This level of integration enables the creation of powerful and versatile digital systems.

    5. Package Size

      LSI devices come in various package sizes and forms, depending on their complexity and intended use. They are commonly found in integrated circuit packages such as quad flat packages (QFPs) and ball grid arrays (BGAs).

    6. Advantages

      LSI devices represent a significant advancement in technology, offering high computational power, memory capacity, and versatility. They enable the creation of sophisticated electronic systems in a compact form factor.

    7. Limitations

      While LSI devices are powerful, they are not without limitations. They can generate substantial heat due to their complexity, and power consumption may be a concern in some applications. Additionally, designing and manufacturing LSI chips can be highly intricate and costly.

    In summary, Large Scale Integration (LSI) refers to the integration of a large number of electronic components or logic gates onto a single semiconductor chip. LSI devices are highly complex and have played a pivotal role in advancing technology, enabling the development of powerful microprocessors, memory devices, and various digital systems. Their impact on the world of electronics has been profound, contributing to the rapid growth and evolution of the industry.

  4. VLSI – Very Large-Scale Integration

    Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) is a term used in the field of integrated circuit (IC) technology to describe an extremely high level of integration. VLSI represents a significant advancement beyond Large Scale Integration (LSI) and involves the integration of a vast number of electronic components or logic gates onto a single semiconductor chip. Here are some key points about VLSI:

    1. Component Integration

      VLSI devices incorporate an exceptionally large number of electronic components onto a single chip. These components can include highly complex logic gates, microprocessors, memory cells, analog circuits, and specialized functions.

    2. Extreme Complexity

      VLSI devices are characterized by their extreme complexity and capability to perform a wide range of intricate digital and analog functions. They can execute complex computations, process high-speed data, and handle multifaceted tasks within a compact chip.

    3. Applications

      VLSI technology has had a transformative impact on various industries, including microelectronics, telecommunications, computing, and consumer electronics. VLSI devices power everything from powerful microprocessors to advanced communication systems.

    4. Count of Gates

      The number of gates or components integrated in VLSI devices is staggering, often ranging from millions to billions of logic gates. This level of integration enables the development of highly advanced and feature-rich electronic systems.

    5. Package Size

      VLSI devices are typically packaged in compact and technologically advanced packages designed for efficient cooling and miniaturization. Surface-mount technology (SMT) and flip-chip packaging are common in VLSI applications.

    6. Advantages

      VLSI devices represent the pinnacle of integrated circuit technology, offering unparalleled computational power, memory capacity, and functionality. They enable the creation of cutting-edge electronics with a small physical footprint.

    7. Limitations

      Despite their capabilities, VLSI devices face challenges related to power consumption, heat dissipation, and manufacturing complexity. Designing VLSI chips requires expertise in complex electronic systems and is a resource-intensive process.

    In summary, Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) involves the integration of an exceptionally large number of electronic components or logic gates onto a single semiconductor chip. VLSI devices are renowned for their extreme complexity and have played a crucial role in shaping the modern world of electronics. They underpin the development of powerful microprocessors, advanced memory devices, and complex digital systems that drive innovation in various industries.

  5. ULSI - Ultra Large Scale Integration

    ULSI stands for "Ultra Large Scale Integration." It refers to a level of integration in semiconductor technology where an extremely high number of electronic components or logic gates are integrated onto a single semiconductor chip. ULSI represents a significant advancement beyond VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) and is characterized by its ability to accommodate billions of transistors and other components on a single chip. Here are some key points about ULSI: 

    1. Component Integration 

      ULSI devices are known for their extreme level of component integration. They can incorporate billions of transistors, memory cells, and other electronic components onto a single chip. 

    2. Complexity

      ULSI technology enables the creation of highly complex and powerful integrated circuits. These circuits can execute intricate computations, process vast amounts of data, and support advanced functionalities. 

    3. Applications

      ULSI technology has a broad range of applications across various industries, including microelectronics, computing, telecommunications, and consumer electronics. ULSI chips power modern microprocessors, memory devices, and advanced digital systems. 

    4. Count of Components

      The count of transistors or components in ULSI devices is typically measured in billions. This level of integration allows for the development of state-of-the-art electronics with advanced features and capabilities. 

    5. Package Size

      ULSI devices are packaged in advanced and compact packages designed for efficient cooling, miniaturization, and integration into various electronic systems. 

    6. Advantages

      ULSI technology represents the cutting edge of integrated circuit technology, offering unmatched computational power, memory capacity, and versatility. It is essential for the development of high-performance computing and advanced electronic devices. 

    7. Limitations

      Despite their capabilities, ULSI devices face challenges related to power efficiency, heat dissipation, and manufacturing complexity. Designing and manufacturing ULSI chips require expertise in complex electronic systems and advanced fabrication techniques. 

    In summary, Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI) represents the highest level of integration in semiconductor technology, with the ability to accommodate billions of electronic components on a single chip. ULSI devices are at the forefront of technology and are instrumental in driving innovation in electronics, computing, and various other industries.

Comparison of IC and Discrete Circuits

Integrated circuits (ICs) and discrete circuits are two fundamental approaches to building electronic circuits, each with its advantages and disadvantages. Here's a comparison between the two:

  1. Component Integration

    1. ICs: ICs integrate multiple electronic components (transistors, resistors, capacitors, etc.) onto a single silicon chip. They are highly compact and can contain thousands or even millions of components on a small piece of silicon.
    2. Discrete Circuits: Discrete circuits use individual electronic components connected on a circuit board. Each component is separate, which can lead to larger circuit sizes and more complex wiring.
  2. Size and Space

    1. ICs: ICs are extremely compact, making them ideal for applications where space is limited, such as mobile devices and laptops.
    2. Discrete Circuits: Discrete circuits tend to be larger and may require more space due to the individual components and wiring.
  3. Cost

    1. ICs: ICs can be cost-effective for mass production because of their integration and the ability to batch-fabricate them.
    2. Discrete Circuits: Discrete components can be costlier when many components are required for a circuit, and they often require more manual assembly.
  4. Power Consumption

    1. ICs: ICs are designed for efficiency, and power consumption is often optimized. They are a better choice for battery-powered devices.
    2. Discrete Circuits: Discrete circuits may consume more power due to less optimization and component choices.
  5. Customization

    1. ICs: ICs are generally less customizable because their functionality is pre-defined during manufacturing.
    2. Discrete Circuits: Discrete circuits offer more flexibility and can be tailored to specific requirements by selecting individual components and designing the circuit accordingly.
  6. Complexity

    1. ICs: ICs excel at handling complex functions and are commonly used in microprocessors, memory chips, and specialized application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs).
    2. Discrete Circuits: Discrete circuits are typically used for simpler tasks or when custom functionality is needed.
  7. Reliability

    1. ICs: ICs are highly reliable due to their monolithic structure and reduced chances of connection issues.
    2. Discrete Circuits: Discrete circuits can be more prone to failure if components are not soldered properly or if connections degrade over time.
  8. Repair and Maintenance

    1. ICs: ICs are difficult to repair or modify because they are sealed packages.
    2. Discrete Circuits: Discrete circuits are easier to troubleshoot and repair since individual components can be replaced.

    In summary, the choice between ICs and discrete circuits depends on factors like space, cost, power consumption, customization needs, and complexity of the circuit. ICs are favored for miniaturization and high-volume production, while discrete circuits offer flexibility and ease of maintenance. Many electronic systems use a combination of both approaches to achieve a balance between performance and versatility.

Fabrication Of Components

Usually, electronic components such as diodes, resistors, and capacitors are made on a monolithic integrated circuit (IC). In order to fabricate these IC components impurities are added or diffused in specific places in the semiconductor wafer (i.e. substrate) so a PN junction can be made Figure (a) shows the cross-section area of the basic monolithic components.

Integrated Circuits IC Fabrication of Components
Fabrication Of IC Components

All four components are made inside the P-type substrate or wafer. N-type and P-type portions are made from N-type and P-type materials inside the P-type substrate. However, this is done by diffusion process. In this process, P-type and N-type materials (in the form of gas) are added to the semiconductor wafer at high temperatures. The wafer is placed in a high temperature, furnace (of about 100o C)

At first, a thin layer of silicon diode SiO2 layer is made at particular areas of the N-type layer which are subject to diffusion. The N-type material is diffused into the substrate. Now the first and large N-type potion is diffused inside the substrate.

Again a thin layer of SiO2 is grown over the other new place and is selected to diffuse P-type material inside the N-type material. This same process is repeated to diffuse the last potion of N-type material.